第四章： 段落结构 （THE STRUCTURE OF PARAGRAPH）
一、段落关系
一般来说，段落主要由三部分组成，即主题句、的扩展句和结论句。
主题句是篇章的核心，它表明作者的态度、的观点、的意图等，同时反映了段落 的中心思想。主题句应具备：一是明确的观点，二是有一定的概括性，能用其它句子来解释、的描述、的分析等。扩展句主要围绕着主题句进行叙述，说明或论述等。扩展句必须明确、的具体。总结句指用一句话将某一主旨进行归纳总结或概括，有时还起承上启下的作用。总结句需要与主题呼应，引发读者对段落主题的进一步认识。总之，篇章的主题必须统一，内容完整、的结构连贯，长度适度。段落的扩展对构成一篇文章，展示文章的主题，有着举足轻重的作用。常用的方式有：
1、排列顺序：既按照内容的主次、的时间的先后或位置的先后来进行论证，陈述或解释。常用的词语有：first／firstly, second／secondly, furthermore, finally, above all, first and most important, to begin／start with, in the second place, moreover, to conclude, next，then, afterward lastly, in the end, eventually．
2、比较和对比：一般来说，比较包括相同点和相异点。对比则仅指相异点。
常见的词及词组有：in comparison(with), likewise, similarly, in the same way, equally, but, in contrast With／to, instead，conversely, on the contrary, in／by contrast, while，Correspondingly． 3、因果和推理：这种段落发展方式通常用于解释某件事发生的原因和结果。
经常用到的因果关系的动词和动词词组有：cause, produce, lead to, bring about, result from, be due to, have an effect on, result in．
因果关系的连接词有：due to，the fact that, for the simple reason, because (of), so that, consequently, hence, as a result, accordingly, therefore, so long as, so, thus, owing to, now that, for／as, since．
4、举例：用实例来说明作者的观点是举例段落的发展方式。采用举例的方式，使文章内容更加充实，更富有内涵。常用于举例的词和词组有：such as, for example, for instance, as an illustration, to illustrate, a case in point, as follows, just as, just as, including, like． 段落的组成：
引导句 （Introductory Sentence） 主题句 （Topic Sentence） 扩展句 （Developing Sentence 1） 扩展句 （Developing Sentence 2） 扩展句 （Developing Sentence 3） 结论句 （Concluding Sentence）
二、段落主题句和段落扩展句
Topic sentence:
My home town is a beautiful place. It stands beside a wide river at the foot of low green hills. It has many fine buildings and wide streets. There are trees and flowers everywhere.
Topic sentence:
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Water is important to people in more ways than you might think. 根据这个主题句，写出后面的扩展句。
Not only do we need water in cooking and washing, but also in plants, which also need water.（扩展句1） we eat plants and animals that live on water. （扩展句2）To make the world go well, water becomes something quiet necessary.（扩展句3） For these reasons we may say that without water, there could be no life.（结论句）
Topic sentence:
In Chinese culture, most of the people value family relationships.
Many people prefer large families instead of smaller ones, including perhaps three generations: grandparents, parents and grandchildren. （扩展句1）
When young people got married and could afford a bigger house, they consider getting parents living together with them. After a baby was born, the grandparents are quite willing to help the younger couple to look after it. （扩展句2）
Young parents and grandparents show great concern to each other. Even if not being able to go on living with their seniors, young couples will try their best to go back to their parents because the majority of the Chinese attach great importance to family relationships. （扩展句3） This emphasis on families is deeply-rooted in our Chinese culture. （结论句） 【Exercise 1】
分别给下面段落填写主题句。
1. , generally, the standard of education is higher. This is because colleges and universities have up-to-date equipment and other resources. Also, teachers and lectures are highly-skilled professionals who are aware of all the latest developments in their fields of interest. A final point is that the overseas qualifications which a student obtains are valid usually anywhere in the world.
2. , Every day there are opportunities to practice listening to and speaking with Australians. Also, students can experience the culture first-hand, which is a great help when trying to understand the language. This is especially true if they choose to live with Australians, as part of a home-stay family, for example. Furthermore, if students attend a language school full-time, the teachers will be native speakers. 3. , One example is the word \such expressions as ―Where are you grafting?‖ meaning ―Where are you working?‖. From this perfectly respectable meaning, the word has gradually changed. Today graft refers to illegal gains won by dishonest politicians. 【Exercise 2】
根据文意，重组下面的段落：
A. Certainly TV can be a powerful educational tool. People can learn about situations and problems far away, and begin to understand different cultures. Many informative documentaries about nature, news, and social issues are made now, and these can stimulate people to action. People in isolated areas can know for themselves what is happening in the world. This gives them the power to make their own decisions and form their own opinions.
B. In my opinion, television is the most important technological development. Nowadays almost everyone in the world has access to TV. Television has caused significant changes in family life
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and education. Some of these changes have been positive while others have been negative.
C. However, the changes have not all been positive. Before television was widely available, families spent more time together talking and playing games. They seemed much closer to each other than modem families.
D. To sum up, I feel that, overall, there are strong positive effects of TV in terms of its education role, but it has in many ways altered people and families in a negative sense.
E. Also, the fact is that people waste a lot of time watching poor quality programs which do not have a positive influence. People get a bad impression of the real world from such programs. Furthermore, TV is sometimes used to deliberately misinform people; for example when it is used to as a propaganda tool by governments. 正确顺序： 【Exercise 3】
根据下面的主题句，写出扩展句：
1. The younger generation is essentially different from the older generation.
2. I like traveling by bus than traveling by airplane for three reasons.
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第五章： 说明文 (EXPOSITION)
一、说明文类型书面表达的写作方法
在说明事物，或者解释事情发生的过程中可以采用以下几种方法：
1、对比：通过对比可以突出要说明事物，从而使读者更深刻地了解事物的特征。
2、举例：运用生活中浅显的事例来说明较复杂的事情，使读者更清楚的了解被说明事物。 3、推理：分析原因，用结果来证实所说明事物。
二、说明文类型书面表达的提高策略
说明文是以说明为主要表达方式来解说事物，阐明事理而给人以知识的文章，它要求语言准确简明，通俗浅显，条理清晰而有逻辑性。这种文体多采用一般现在时态。 1、内容要丰富
写作中要涵盖命题的所有要点，内容充实。如果同学们只是按照考试题目所提供的几条主要的提纲式要点进行了简单的翻译，而没有根据需要进行适当的拓展，这样的文章是不可能拿到很高的分数的。
2、所选用的句式应当有适当的变化
使用较为复杂的句式，且有一定的变化，使得文章读起来错落有致，而不显呆板。句式的变化也显示出学生对语言的驾驭能力。
3、使用必要的连接词突出文章的逻辑与层次，体现其整体性和连贯性 行文连贯是高考评分标准的最基本要求。所以适当地使用连接词汇是必须的。但是要注意一个误区，有些学生在每两个句子之间都毫无节制地使用连接词，使得文章表面上看起来连接比较好，但是有些句子间是不需要形式上的连接词，句子之间本身就具有内在的逻辑。因此，只有在需要的地方加上连接词，才能达到使用连接词的目的，反之就是画蛇添足。
三、说明文类书面表达的基本句型
说明文的内容是变化不定的，但是作为一种文体，它还是有一定的规律，有一些值得总结的内容。
With the rapidly growing popularity of…? 随着……的快速普及 As the proverb says? 正如名言所说…… It is quite clear that? 十分清楚的是……
There are some reasons for? as follows.关于……有以下理由. A recent survey suggests that…最近的调查显示…… All the facts shows that? 所有事实均表明…… As is shown in the diagram…如图表所示. …… All that we can do is to… 我们所能做的就是……
四、如何解说事物
图表说明文是近年来考试的重点，热点。做这一题型的书面表达时，同学们最好能在分清图与图之间的关系的基础上列出要点，逐条说明。巧用过渡性的词语，能使文章结构紧凑，条理清晰。
1. 表时间顺序：
first, then, to begin with, meanwhile, later, soon, finally 2. 表空间顺序：
near, next to, far from, in front of, on the left, on one side 对于方位的描写：
Guizhou lies in the southwest of China.
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Guizhou lies in the southwestern part of China Guizhou lies southwest of China
Japan lies to the east of China 区别in/on/to
The Ming tombs are located about 50km to the northwest of Beijing. Tianjin is situated 120km southeast of Beijing. 3. 表并列关系
and, as well as, also , too 4. 表因果关系：
Because, for, as, since, as a result of, therefore, thus, thanks to 5. 表递进关系
Besides, what’s more, moreover, in addition 6, 表比照关系
like, unlike, such as, but, however, on the other hand, on the contrary 7. 表条件关系
If, unless, as long as, on condition that 8. 表概括关系
in general, in a word, in short, on the whole, to sum up 【Example 1】
假定你是李华。应英国朋友Bob的要求， 写一封短信介绍你校图书馆的基本情况。内容须包括下面两幅图中的相关信息。
（注：上面的小字是：借阅须知：每人每次5本，借期10天。下面的小字是：开放时间：周一至周五，早9：00至晚7：00，周末闭馆。） 书面表达： 内容要点：
1. 图书馆的位置：前有花园，后有教学楼 2. 内部环境：宽敞、有书架、报刊、书籍等 3. 图书馆功能：借阅、借阅数量和借期 4. 开放时间 5. 合适的结尾
Dear Bob,
Thank you for your last letter asking about our library.
Our library is in the center of the school. There is a beautiful garden in front of it and our classroom building is right behind it. The library is big. When you get inside, you will see many shelves full of books on different subjects. There are also lots of newspapers and magazines. We borrow books and do some reading in the library. According to the rule, every student can borrow up to 5 books each time and keep them for 10 days. It is open from 9 a.m. to 7 p.m. from Monday to Friday and closed on weekends.
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