2. Morph—— A morpheme must be realized by discrete（离散的）units. These actual spoken minimal carriers of meaning are morphs. Monomorphenic words —— morphemes are realized by single morphs.
Allomorph（词素变体）—— Some morphemes are realized by more than one morph according to their position. 3. Root —— A root is the basic form of a word,which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity.
（What remains of a word after the removal of all affixes.）
Stem —— a form to which affixes of any kind can be added.
Base ——refers to a form to which affixes of any kind can be added.It can be a root or stem. a stem may consist of a single root or two roots and a root plus a affix. a stem can be a root or a form bigger than a root. 请加以区别下面两个词的特征: nation , dict 加以理论的分析
(1) Both nation and dict belong to roots, nation is free root, which can function alone in a sentence,
(2) Nation as a free root, has complete meaning, when both prefixes and suffixes attached to it are removed, nation as a free root, still remains
Dict is a bound root, which can not function alone grammatically , dict carries the fundamental meaning of words, dict has to combine with the other morphemes to create new words , for example , dictionary , contradiction .
Chapter 4 Word-formation in English
1. There are four main types of word-formation in English.
word文档 可自由复制编辑
(1) ★ Affixation （prefixation and suffixation）构词能力最强
Affixation is generally defined as the formation of words by adding word forming or derivational affixes to stems.
(2) Compounding/Composition 复合法 —— a lexical unit consisting of more than one stem and functioning both grammatically and semantically as a single word.
eg: blue-stocking 有教养的女子 moonwalk太空步 toothache牙痛 deadline截止期限brainwashing洗脑 stockholder股东 outbreak 爆发 sit-in静坐罢工 going-over 苛斥；毒打；严格的检查 crybaby爱哭的人；宝贝 cleaning lady清洁女工 Free phrase: son-in-law女婿 milk-and-water无味的；软弱无力的 forget-me-not勿忘草 aspects phonetic语音features Semantic features Grammatical features compound Stress on the first element free phrase Stress on the second element（元素） Every compound should express a single idea just as one word. A compound tends to play a single grammatical role in a sentence ,for example, a verb, a noun, or an adjective. In adjective-noun compounds, the adjective element cannot take inflectional suffixes. (3) Conversion转换法——is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class. These words are new only in a grammatical sense. The most productive is between nouns and verbs. It is also known as functional shift.
full conversion —— It can take an indefinit article(不定冠词) or - (e)s to indicate singular or plural number. e.g. black→a black drinkable→ drinkables
partial conversion —— must be used together with definite articles. e.g. rich→the rich 2. Other types of word-formation
(1) Clipping/shortening —— shorten a longer word by cutting a part of the origin and using what remains instead. quake（earthquake） dorm（dormitory） pop（popular music） flu（influenza）
(2) Acronymy首字母缩略法——joining the initial letters of names of social and political organizations or special phrases and technical terms eg: VOA - Voice of America TV - television
(3) Blending混合法——is the word formation by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word.
绝大多数blending 都是nouns eg: smog（烟雾）from smoke+fog telex（电传机）from teleprinter+exchange Medicare（医疗保险）from medical+care lunarnaut（登月宇航员）from lunar+astronaut
(4) Back-formation逆构词法—— is a process of word-formation by which a word is created by the deletion删除of a supposed affix. donate（donation） loaf（loafer） babysit （babysitter） laze （lazy）
Chapter 5 Word meaning
1. Analytical(referential)分析的 Reference– the relationship between language and the world.
Operational(contextual)运用到具体场景中 Concept – which beyond language is the result of human cognition reflecting the
objective world in the human mind
★Sense
1）sense denotes the relationships inside the language. The sense of an expression is its place in a system of semantic relationships with other expressions in the language.’
2）Since the sense of an expression is not a thing, it is often difficult to say what sort of identity it is. It is also an abstraction. 3）Every word that has meaning has sense (not every word has reference)
2. Motivation（理据）—— accounts for the connection between the linguistic（语言学的）symbol and its meaning. non-motivated
Onomatopoeic（拟声的）—— the words whose sounds suggest their meaning.
eg :bang， ping-pang， crow by cocks Morphological（形态学的）—— Compounds and derived words are multi-morphemic words and the meaning of many words are the sum total of the morphemes combined. Motivated eg: airmail means to ―mail by air‖
