给非英专业的同学看看 已经被做了中文解释
第一章 Land and People
I. Different Names for Britain and its Parts
1. Geographical names: the British Isles, Great Britain and England. 地理名称:不列颠群岛,大不列颠和英格兰。
2. Official name: the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. 官方正式名称:大不列颠及北爱尔兰联合王国与北爱尔兰。
3. The British Isles are made up of two large islands-Great Britain (the larger one) and Ireland, and hundreds of small ones.
不列颠群岛由两个大的islands-Great英国(较大的一个)和爱尔兰,成百上千的小的。
4. Three political pisions on the island of Great Britain: England, Scotland and Wales.三个政治分歧的大不列颠岛:英格兰、苏格兰和威尔士。
(1) England is in the southern part of Great Britain. It is the largest, most populous section. 英格兰位于大不列颠岛南部。这是最大的,人口最稠密的地区。
(2) Scotland is in the north of Great Britain. It has three natural zones (the Highlands in the north; the Central lowlands; the south Uplands) Capital: Edinburgh
(3) Wales is in the west of Great Britain. Capital: Cardiff
(4) Northern Ireland is the fourth region of the UK. Capital: Belfast.
(2)苏格兰是北方的大不列颠。它有三个自然区(北部的高地,中部低地;南高原)首都:爱丁堡
(3)威尔士西部大不列颠。首都:卡迪夫
(4)北爱尔兰是英国第四个区域。首都:贝尔法斯特。
5. The Commonwealth (of nations) is a free association of independent countries that were once colonies of Britain. It was founded in 1931, and has 50 member countries until 1991.
5。英联邦国家)是独立国家所构成的自由联合体是曾为英国殖民地。它成立于1931年,直到1991年才有50个成员国。 II. Geographical Features
II地理特征
1. Geographical position of Britain:
Britain is an island country surrounded by the sea. It lies in the North Atlantic Ocean off the north coast of Europe. It is separated from the rest of Europe by the English Channel in the south and the North Sea in the east.
2. The north and west of Britain are mainly highlands; and the east and southeast are mostly lowlands.
1。英国的地理位置:
英国是一个大海包围的岛国。它位于大西洋北部,从欧洲北海岸的。它与欧洲其它部分隔开以英吉利海峡在南部和北海在东部。
2。英国的西部和北部主要是高地,东部和东南部主要是低地。
III. Rivers and Lakes
三.河流和湖泊
Ben Nevis is the highest mountain in Britain (1,343m).
Severn River is the longest river in Britain (338km).
Thames River is the second longest and most important river in Britain. (336 km).
给非英专业的同学看看 已经被做了中文解释
Lough Neagh is the largest lake in Britain which is located in Northern Ireland. (396 square kilometer).
River Clyde is the most important river in Scotland.
Snowdonia is the highest mountain in Wales.（1,085m）
本尼维斯山为英国最高峰,海拔1343米)。
塞文河是英国最长的河流。全长338公里。
泰晤士河是英国第二大河,也是英国最重要的河。(336公里)。
讷湖(内伊湖)是英国最大的湖,位于北爱尔兰。(396平方公里)。
克莱德河是苏格兰最重要的河流。
Snowdonia最高峰是在威尔士(1085米)。
IV. Climate 四、气候
1. Britain's favorable climate
Britain has a maritime climate-winters are not too cold and summers are not too hot. It has a steady reliable rainfall throughout the whole year. The temperature varies within a small range.
1。英国的气候适宜
英国有一个海洋climate-winters不过于寒冷,夏季不过于炎热。它有一个稳定的降雨量在整整一年。温差在小范围之内。
2. The factors influence the climate in Britain:
1）The surrounding waters tend to balance the seasonal differences by heating up the land in winter and cooling it off in summer;
2) The prevailing south-west winds or the Westerlies blow over the country all the year round bringing warm and wet air in winter and keeping the temperatures moderate;
3）The North Atlantic Drift passes the western coast of the British Isles and warms them.
2。气候因素影响英国
1)周围的水域的季节性差异趋于均衡加热土地在冬季和夏季冷却下来;
2)流行的西南大风吹过或上西风气流国家一年四季带来温暖和潮湿空气在冬季和保持温度适中;
(3)通过北大西洋漂移不列颠群岛西海岸,使气候变暖。
3. Rainfall
Britain has a steady reliable rainfall throughout the whole year. The average annual rainfall in Britain is over 1,000mm. There is a water surplus in the north and west, and a water deficit in the south and east.
3。降雨
英国有一个稳定的降雨量在整整一年。在英国的年平均降雨量超过1000毫米。有一个水顺差在北部和西部,在一个水分亏缺南部和东部。
V. The People
V．人口
1. Population distribution
Britain has a population of about 57 millions and it is very unevenly distributed. 90% of the population is urban and only 10% is rural. The population of Britain is made up mainly of the English (81.5%), the Scottish (9.6%), the Welsh (1.9%), the
给非英专业的同学看看 已经被做了中文解释
Irish (2.4%), the Northern Irish (1.8%) and other peoples (2.8%).
1。人口分布
英国人口约5.7亿是非常不均匀的分配。90%的人口是城市,只有10%的人居住在农村。英国的人口是由主要的英语(81.5%),苏格兰人(9.6%),威尔士人(1.9%),爱尔兰人(2.4%),北爱尔兰(1.8%),其他民族(2.8%)。
2. The difference between the ancestors of the English and Scots, Welsh and Irish: The ancestors of the English are Anglo-Saxons, the Scots, Welsh and Irish are Celts.
2。他们的祖先之间的区别英国和苏格兰、威尔士和爱尔兰人:
英格兰人祖先属于盎格鲁—萨克逊人,而苏格兰、威尔士和爱尔兰人属于凯尔特人。
3. The difference in character
The Welsh are emotional and cheerful people. They are music lovers and are proud of their past.
The Scots are said to be a serious, cautious and thrifty people, and they are also hospitable, generous and friendly.
The Irish are charm and vivacity.
3。不同的性格
威尔士人感情丰富,情绪高涨。热爱音乐,为过去感到自豪。
苏格兰人通常被认为严肃、谨慎而且节俭,但是他们同样也热情、大方且友好。
爱尔兰的魅力和活泼。
4. The difference in speech between southern England and northern England:
Southerners speak the type of English close to BBC English; In northern England, regional speech is usually "broader" than that of southern England.
4。在言语之间的差异和英格兰北部英格兰南部。
南方人讲英语的类型接近BBC英语,在英格兰北部、区域性发音通常要比南英格兰人宽。
5. The Welsh keep their language and culture in this way:
Throughout the year they have festivals of song and dance and poetry called Eisteddfodau. The great event of the year is the National Eisteddfod. On these occasions competitions are held in Welsh poetry, music, singing and art.
5。威尔士保持他们的语言和文化乃是这样:
在整个一年中他们有节日的唱歌、跳舞、叫Eisteddfodau诗歌。一年中最重要的节日是全国诗歌音乐比赛会。在这些情况下比赛举行威尔士诗歌、音乐、唱歌和艺术。
6. The main problem in Northern Ireland:
The fight is between the Protestants who are the dominant group and the Roman Catholics who are seeking more social, political and economic opportunities.
6。在北爱尔兰的主要问题:
之间的斗争的新教徒和天主教徒占主导地位的集团要求更多社会、政治和经济机会。
7. Immigrants:
About three million have come to Britain to live and find work since World War II.
7。移民:
约有三百万人来英国生活并找工作在第二次世界大战以后。
第二章
给非英专业的同学看看 已经被做了中文解释
The Origins of a Nation (5000BC-1066)
一个国家的起源(公元前5000年- 1066年)
I. Early Settlers （5000BC-55BC）
早期的定居者(5000 BC-55BC)
1．The first known settlers of Britain were the Iberians.
2． At about 2000 BC the Beaker Folk arrived from the areas now know as Holland and Rhineland.
3． The Celts began to arrive in Britain about 700 BC.
4． The Celts came to Britain in three main waves.
The first wave was the Gaels-came about 600 BC.
The second wave was the Brythons-came about 400 BC.
The third wave was the Belgae-came about 150 BC.
1.年英国殖民者的第一例是伊比利来人。
2。约公元前2000年,从地区民间到烧杯现在的荷兰和莱茵兰知道。
3 .克尔特人来到在英国大约在公元前700年。
4 .克尔特人来到不列颠有三次高潮。
第一次高潮是约公元前600年盖尔人的来临。
第二次高潮是约公元前400年布列吞人。
第三波文化整合是约公元前150年比利其人。 II. Roman Britain (55BC-410AD)
II。罗马统治下的不列颠(公元前55 - 410 - AD)
1. British recorded history begins with the Roman invasion. In 55BC and 54BC, Julius Caesar, a Roman general, invaded Britain twice. In AD 43, the Emperor Claudius invaded Britain successfully. For nearly 400 years, Britain was under the Roman occupation, though it was never a total occupation.
1。有记录的英国历史开始于罗马人的入侵。公元前55年和54年,罗马将军朱略斯·凯撒两次入侵英国,均未。直到公元43年,克劳锹才成功占领不列颠。将近400年,英国人处于罗马人的占领下,但这并非是完全的占领。
2. Roman's influence on Britain.
The Roman built many towns, road, baths, temples and buildings. They make good use of Britain's natural resources. They also brought the new religion, Christianity, to Britain.
3. Reasons for limited Roman influence on Britain.
First, the Romans always treated the Britons as a subject people of slave class. Second, never during the 4 centuries did the Romans and Britons intermarry. Third, the Romans had no impact on the language or culture of ordinary Britons.
Summary: This is the second part of Chapter 2 (The Origins of a Nation). It introduced some important events and important people in England from 446 to 1066. These most important events are The Anglos-Saxons' invasion; The Viking and Danish Invasions and The Norman Conquest.
2。罗马对不列颠的影响的。
罗马人修建了许多城镇网,道路,澡堂,庙宇和其他建筑物。他们还很好地利用了英国的自然资源。他们还把基督教这门新宗教带到不列颠。
3。理由罗马对不列颠的影响有限。
给非英专业的同学看看 已经被做了中文解释
首先,罗马人把不列颠人作为一门学科奴隶阶级的人。第二,从不在四世纪对罗马人和不列颠人通婚。第三,罗马人也未影响普通不列颠人的语言和文化。
摘要:这是第二部分第2章(国家的起源。它介绍了一些重要的事件和重要的人在英国从446年到1066年。这些重要事件分别是Anglos-Saxons的入侵,北欧海盗和丹麦人的入侵及诺曼征服)。 III. The Anglo-Saxons (446-871)
III、盎格鲁—萨克逊人(446 - 871)
1． Basis of Modern English race: the Anglo-Saxons.
In the mid-5th century a new wave of invaders, Jutes, Saxons, and Angles came to Britain. They were three Teutonic tribes.
The Jutes, who fished and farmed in Jutland, came to Britain first. A Jutish chief became the King of Kent in 449. Then the Saxons, users of the short-sword from northern Germany, established their kingdom in Essex, Sussex and Wessex from the end of the 5th century to the beginning of the 6th century. In the second half of the 6th century, the Angles, who also came from northern Germany and were to give their name to the English people, settled in East Anglia, Mercia and Northumbria. These seven principal kingdoms of Kent, Essex, Sussex, Wessex, East Anglia, Mercia and Northumbria have been given the name of Heptarchy.
1。根据现代英语竞赛:盎格鲁—萨克逊人。
在mid-5th世纪新一波的侵略者,,朱特人、撒克逊人、来到英国和角度。他们三个土耳其人的部落。
朱特人、钓鱼、养殖五来到不列颠。这是部落首领成为国王在449年。那人、撒克逊人、short-sword用户从德国北部,建立了国在埃塞克斯、苏塞克斯、威塞克斯的一端,5th世纪初的6th世纪。在下半场的6th世纪,角,谁也来自德国北部,他们也把名字给了英国人,住在东盎格利亚、麦西亚和诺森薄利亚。这七个主要的王国:肯特、威塞克斯、苏塞克斯、威塞克斯、东盎格利亚、麦西亚和诺森伯利亚),合称为七王国。给出的名字
2．The early Anglo-Saxons converted to Christianity.
The Anglo-Saxons brought their own Teutonic religion to Britain. Christianity soon disappeared, except among the Celts of Cornwall, Wales, Scotland and Ireland. In 597, Pope Gregory I sent St. Augustine, the Prior of St. Andrew's Monastery in Rome, to England to convert the heathen English to Christianity. In 579 St. Augustine became the first Archbishop of Canterbury. He was remarkably successful in converting the king and the nobility, but the conversion of the common people was largely due to the missionary activities of the monks in the north.
2.早期盎格鲁—萨克逊人皈依基督教。
盎格鲁—萨克逊人带来了自己的土耳其人的宗教到英国来。基督教很快就消失了,除了在康沃尔的塞尔特人、威尔士、苏格兰和爱尔兰。597年,教皇格里高利一世把奥古斯丁摩根、优先的罗马圣安德鲁修道院的领取到英格兰,把异教徒的英国人皈依基督教。在579年成为第一个领取奥古斯丁坎特伯雷大主教。他非常成功地转换国王和贵族,但转换的百姓在很大程度上是由于传教活动的僧侣在北方。
3．The Early Anglo-Saxons make the contributions to the English state.
The Anglo-Saxons laid the foundations of the English state. Firstly, they pided the country into shires, with shire courts and shire reeves, or sheriffs, responsible for administering law. Secondly, they devised the narrow-strip, three-field farming
给非英专业的同学看看 已经被做了中文解释
system which continued to the 18th century. Thirdly, they also established the manorial system. Finally, they created the Witan（council or meeting of the wisemen） to advise the king, the basis of the Privy Council which still exists today。 早期盎格鲁—萨克逊人3.年英国做出的贡献的国家。
盎格鲁—萨克逊人打下基础的英语国家。首先,他们把国家划分为郡,郡法庭和郡法官、或行政司法长官负责执法。其次,他们设计的narrow-strip,three-field农作制度,继续18th的世纪。此外,他们还建立了领地制。最后,他们还创立了议会(贤人会议智者会议),向国王提供建议,这枢密院的基础今天仍然存在
IV．Viking and Danish invasions
IV.Viking和丹麦人的入侵
1．The invaders were the Norwegians and the Danes. They attacked various parts of England from the end of the 8th century. They became a serious problem in the 9th century, especially between 835 and 878. They even managed to capture York, an important center of Christianity in 867. By the middle of 9th century, the Viking and the Danes were posing a threat to the Saxon kingdom of Wessex.
侵略者被挪威1.和丹麦人。他们攻击了英国各地的一端,8th世纪。他们成了一个严重的社会问题9th世纪,尤其是835年和878年之间。他们甚至占领了约克,基督教的重要中心于867年。9th世纪中叶,北欧海盗和丹麦人威胁到撒克逊人构成塞克斯的国。
2．King Alfred (849-899) and his contributions
Alfred was a king of Wessex. He defeated the Danes and reached a friendly agreement with them in 879. The Danes gained control of the north and east, while he ruled the rest. He also converted some leading Danes into Christians.
He founded a strong fleet and is known as " the father of the British navy". He reorganized the Saxon army, making it more efficient. He translated a Latin book into English. He also established schools and formulated a legal system. All this earns him the title "Alfred the Great."
2、阿尔弗雷德国王(849 - 899)和他的贡献
阿尔弗雷德是威塞克斯的国王。他打败了丹麦人,并与他们达成了友好协议在879年。协议规定丹麦人控制英格兰北部和东部),而他统治休息。他还劝服一些丹麦首领成为基督教徒。 他因为建立了强大舰队,被誉为“英国海军之父”。他改组了“撒克逊军队),使之更为高效。他将一本拉丁语的书翻译成英语。同时他还建立了学校,并且阐明了法律制度。所有这一切使他当之无愧于“阿尔弗雷德大帝”的称号伟大。”
V． The Norman Conquest (1066)
V\诺曼人征服英国(1066)
1． Reasons for William's invasion of England after Edward's death.
It was said that King Edward had promised the English throne to William, but the Witan chose Harold as king. So William led his army to invade England. In October 1066, during the important battle of Hastings, William defeated Harold and killed him. One Christmas Day, William was crowned king of England, thus beginning the Norman Conquest of England.
1。理由威廉的爱德华死后入侵英国的。
据说,爱德华国王曾答应英国国王威廉,但是贤人会议选择了哈罗德为国王。所以威廉率领他的民到入侵英国。1066年10月,在哈斯丁斯的重要战役中,威廉打败了哈罗德、将他杀死。一个圣诞节,加冕威廉为英格兰国王,从而开始诺曼征服英格兰。
给非英专业的同学看看 已经被做了中文解释
2．The Norman Conquest and its consequences
The Norman Conquest of 1066 is perhaps the best-known event in English history. William the Conqueror confiscated almost all the land and gave it to his Norman followers. He replaced the weak Saxon rule with a strong Norman government. He replaced the weak Saxon rule with a strong Norman government. So the feudal system was completely established in England. Relations with the Continent were opened, and the civilization and commerce were extended. Norman-French culture, language, manners and architecture were introduced. The Church was brought into closer connection with Rome, and the church courts were separated from the civil courts.
2.诺曼征服和它的因果关系
1066年的诺曼征服也许是英国历史上最著名的事件。征服者威廉几乎没收了所有土地,递给他的诺曼追随者。他把撒克逊人统治弱者有强烈的诺曼政府。他把撒克逊人统治弱者有强烈的诺曼政府。所以封建制度在英国完全建立。与大陆的关系就开了、文明和商业都延长了。Norman-French文化、语言、举止和建筑进行了介绍。教堂被带进近和罗马联系,教会法庭民事法庭分离。
3．The English is a mixture of nationalities of different origins. The ancestors of many English people were the ancient Angles and Saxons. Some English people are of the Norman-French origin.
This is one of the most difficult parts. In this part, I will introduce some Kings in English history and their reformations. Though we have to remember a lot of things in this part, we also learn more about English history.
3.英国是一个集不同民族于一体的起源。许多英国人的祖先是古盎格鲁和撒克逊人。而还有一些英国人的是诺曼血统。
这是一个最困难的部分。在本部分中,我将介绍一些在英国历史上和他们君王改革。虽然我们必须记住很多东西在本部分中,我们也更多地了解英语的历史。
第三章The Shaping of the Nation (1066-1381)
一个国家的形态(1066 - 1381) I. Norman Rule (1066-1381)
I、 诺曼制度
1. William's Rule （1066-1087）
England's feudalism under the rule of William the Conqueror
英国的封建统治下的征服者威廉
①Under William, the feudal system in England was completely established. ②According to this system, the King owned all the land personally. ③William gave his barons large estates in England in return for a promise of military service and a proportion of the land's produce. ④These estates were scattered far and wide over the country, so that those who held them could not easily combine to rebel the king. ⑤The barons, who had become William's tenants-in-chief, parceled out land to the lesser nobles, knights and freemen, also in return for goods and services. ⑥At the bottom of the feudal scale were the villains or serfs. ⑦One peculiar feature of the feudal system of England was that all landowners must take the oath of allegiance，not only to their immediate lord, but also to the king.
给非英专业的同学看看 已经被做了中文解释
在威廉统治之下①,英格兰的封建制度得到完全确立。②根据该制度,国王拥有所有土地本身。③威廉给他在英格兰贵族大量房地产回报承诺的军事服务和一定比例的土地的产生。这些屋邨④分散在全国各地远又广,使那些限制了他们的不太容易结合起来反抗国王。⑤贵族,曾是威廉的土地,土地,包著嫩小的贵族、骑士和自由民,也以换取商品和服务。⑥在封建等级底层的是农奴。一个独有的特色⑦英国封建制度的所有的土地拥有者必须宣誓效忠,不仅直接领主,而且要效忠国王。 2. King Henry II and his reforms
The ways King Henry II consolidate the monarchy.
Henry II took some measures to consolidate the monarchy. He forced the Flemish mercenaries to leave England; recalled grants of Royal lands made by his previous king Stephen; demolished many castles built in Stephen's time; strengthened and widened the powers of his sheriffs and relied for armed support upon a militia composed of English freemen.
The ways Henry II reform the courts and the law.
King Henry II greatly strengthened the Court and extended its judicial work. He pided the whole country into six circuits and appointed justices to each. Cases were therefore heard before the intermittent justices who applied the law impartially. During his reign, a common law was gradually established in place of the previous laws of the local barons. He also introduced a new jury system to replace the old ordeal-based trial system. Besides, he shifted the trial of clergymen charged with criminal offenses from the Bishop's court to the King's court.
2。亨利二世和他的改革
亨利二世的方式巩固君主制。
亨利二世采取了一些措施巩固君主制。他迫使弗兰德斯雇佣军离开英国,收回经费由他以前皇室土地斯蒂芬·王;拆除许多城堡建于斯蒂芬的时间,加强并扩大了他的行政长官们的权力,依靠在民兵武装支持由英国自由民组成的。
亨利二世的方式对法院及法律进行改革。
亨利二世大大加强了法院,扩展了其司法工作。他把整个国家分成六个电路和任命大法官彼此。例因此听过那些间歇法官,并不偏不倚地使用法律。在他统治时期,逐渐建立起普遍法代替以前的法律的地方贵族的限制。他还提出了一个新的陪审制度来取代旧的残酷的审判制度。此外,他把试验神职人员被指控犯罪主教法庭王的法院。
II．Contents and the significance of the Great Charter
Great Charter was signed by King John in 1215 under the press of the barons. It consists of sixty-three clauses. Its important provisions are as follows: (1) no tax should be made without the approval of the Grand Council; (2) no freemen should be arrested, imprisoned or deprived of their property; (3) the Church should possess all its rights, together with freedom of elections; (4) London and other towns should retain their traditional rights and privileges, and (5) there should be the same weights and measures throughout the country. Although The Great Charter has long been popularly regarded as the foundation of English liberties, it was a statement of the feudal and legal relationships between the Crown and the barons, a guarantee of the freedom of the Church and a limitation of the powers of the king. The spirit of the Great Charter was the limitation of the powers of the king, keeping them within the bounds of the feudal law of the land.
给非英专业的同学看看 已经被做了中文解释
内容和意义的《大宪章》
《大宪章》是约翰国王1215年签署的压力下的贵族。它由六十三项条款。其重要条款有:(1)不税应该没有大议会批准;(2)不自由民应该逮捕,拘禁或剥夺他们的财产;(3)教会应拥有权利,连同选举自由;(4)伦敦和其他城市应保留其传统的权利和特权;(5)应该有同样的度量衡整个国家。尽管《大宪章》一直被普遍认为是英语自由的基础,它是一个陈述的封建法律关系是国王与贵族之间,担保自由的教堂、一个限制国王权力。《大宪章》的精神是限制国王权力,使其在英国封建法律允许的范围之内的土地。
III. The origins of the English Parliament
The Great Council is known to be the prototype of the current British Parliament. In 1265, Simon de Montfort summoned the Great Council, together with two knights from each county and two citizens from each town. It later developed into the House of Lords and the House of Commons. Its main role was to offer advice. There were no elections or parties. And the most important part of Parliament was the House of Lords. 英国议会的起源
大议会是众所周知的是,目前英国议会的原型。在1265年,西蒙英国德蒙特福召唤大议会,连同两位骑士从每个县和两位市民从每一个城镇。它后来发展成的上议院和下议院。它的主要任务是提供建议。没有选举和政党。和最重要的部分是上议院议员。
IV．The Hundred Years' War and its consequences.
The Hundred Years' War refers to the war between England and France that lasted intermittently from 1337 to 1453. The causes of the war were partly territorial and partly economic. The territorial causes were related with the possession by the English kings of the large duchy in France, while the French kings coveted this large slice. The economic causes were connected with cloth manufacturing towns in Flanders, which were the importer of English wool, but they were loyal to the French king politically. Besides, England's desire to stop France from giving aid to Scots and a growing sense of nationalism were the other causes.
The English's being driven out of France is regarded as a blessing for both countries. If the English had remained in France, the superior size and wealth of France would have hindered the development of a separate English national identity, while France was hindered so long as a foreign power occupied so much French territory. IV、英法年战争和它的结果。
英法年战争指英国和法国之间的战争,一场断断续续从1337年到1453年。此次战争的原因被部分领土,部分经济。领土的原因与之相关的英国国王拥有大在法国的领地,而法国国王令人垂涎的大片。经济原因制造城镇与布 弗兰德斯了,他是英国羊毛的主要进口商,但他们政治上却效忠法国国王。此外,英国试图阻止法国帮助苏格兰人,给一种日益强烈的民族其他的原因。 英语被赶出法国看作是一个两国的祝福。如果英国人住在法国,优越的大小和丰富的法国将阻碍了发展一个单独的英语国家的身份,而法国是阻碍只要一个外国势力占太多法国领土。 V. The Black Death
The Black Death is the modern name given to the deadly epidemic disease spread by rat fleas across Europe in the 14th century. It swept through England in the summer of 1348. It reduced England's population from four million to two million by the end of the 14th century.
The economic consequences of the Black Death were far-reaching. As a result of the plague, much land was left untended and there was a terrible shortage of labor. The
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surviving peasants had better bargaining power and were in a position to change their serfdom into paid labor. Some landlords, unable or unwilling to pay higher wages, tried to force peasants back into serfdom. In 1351 the government issued a Statute of Laborers which made it a crime for peasants to ask for more wages or for their employers to pay more than the rates laid down by the Justices of the Peace. V、黑死病
黑死病是指由鼠疫蚤传播的致命的流行病了整个欧洲的大鼠蚤传播在14th世纪。它横扫全英国在1348年的夏天。降低了英格兰的人口从四百万年到二百万年结束的时候,14th世纪。 黑死病对经济造成了很深远的影响。由于瘟疫,大片土地无人照管和劳动力极度匮乏。幸存的农民都有更好的议价能力,能够改变他们的农奴制度支付劳动。在有些地主,不能或者不愿意支付更高的工资,强迫农民回农奴制。1351年,政府发布了一个法令的劳动者使其犯罪为农民要求更多的工资或为他们的雇主支付超过规定的利率法官的和平。
VI. The Peasant Uprising of 1381 and its significance
Armed villagers and townsmen of Kent and Essex, led by Wat Tyler and Jack Straw, moved on London in June, 1381. The king was forced to accept their demands. Most of the rebels dispersed and went home, while Tyler and other leaders stayed on for more rights. Tyler was killed at a meeting with the king.
The uprising was brutally suppressed, but it had far-reaching significance in English history. First, it directed against the rich clergy, lawyers and the landowners. Second, it dealt a telling blow to villains, and third, a new class of yeomen farmers emerged, paving the way to the development of capitalism.
VI、1381年的农民起义和它的重要意义
肯特郡的农民和市民武装和埃塞克斯郡的带领下,由瓦特泰勒和杰克斯特劳,向伦敦,1381年6月。国王被迫接受了他们的要求。大多数起义农民解散回家,但泰勒和其他的农民留下来要求得到更多的权利。泰勒在一个会议上被杀死国王。
尽管起义被血腥镇压,但在英国历史上留下了深远。首先,把矛头直接对准了富有的教职人员、律师和地主。第二,它沉重打击了封建农奴制度坏人,第三,一个新的班级的农民也出现了,铺平了道路资本主义的发展。
Chapter4 第四章Transition to the Modern Age (1455-1688)
向现代化过渡时期(1455 - 1688)
I. Transition to the Modern Age (1455-1485)
The Wars of Rose
The name Wars of the Roses was refer to the battles between the House of Lancaster, symbolized by the read rose, and that of York, symbolized by the white, from 1455 to 1485. Henry Tudor, descendant of Duke of Lancaster won victory at Bosworth Fireld in 1485 and put ht country under the rule of the Tudors. From these Wars, English feudalism received its death blow. The great medieval nobility was much weakened. 玫瑰战争
这个名字的玫瑰战争是指间的战争,兰开斯特的家,象征着读玫瑰,玫瑰为标志的约克家族白色的,从1455年到1485年。亨利·图多尔、族类的兰开斯特公爵胜利在1485年和年在Fireld·博斯沃斯那样把ht法治国家都铎王朝。从这些战争,英语接受它的致命的打击封建。许多伟大的中世纪贵族被削弱。
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II. The English Reformation
Henry VIII was above all responsible for the religious reform of the church. There were three main causes: a desire for change and reform in the church had been growing for many years and now, encouraged by the success of Martin Luther, many people believed its time had come; the privilege and wealth of the clergy were resented; and Henry needed money.
The reform began as a struggle for a porce and ended in freedom from the Papacy. Henry VIII wanted to porce Catherine of Aragon but the Pope refused. Henry's reforms were to get rid of the English Church's connection with the Pope, and to make an independent Church of England. He made this break with Rome gradually between 1529 and 1534. He dissolved all of England's monasteries and nunneries because they were more loyal to the Pope than to their English kings. The laws such as the Act of succession of 1534 and the Act of Supremacy of 1535 made his reform possible. He established the Church of England as the national church of the country, and he made himself the supreme head of the Church of England.
Henry VIII's reform stressed the power of the monarch and certainly strengthened Henry's position; Parliament had never done such a long and important piece of work before, its importance grew as a result. His attack on the Pope's power encouraged many critics of abuses of the Catholic Church. England was moving away form Catholicism towards Protestantism.
英国改革
最重要的是,亨利八世负责进行教会的宗教改革。原因有三个主要方面:渴望改变和改革教会的增长已经很多年了,现在,受马丁路德成功的鼓舞,许多人认为时机已到,痛恨教职人员的威望和财富怨恨;亨利需要钱。
改革的开始是一种争夺离婚,以脱离教皇而告终。亨利八世和西班牙阿拉贡的凯瑟琳离婚,想要但是教皇拒绝了。亨利改革的目的是摆脱英国教会与教皇的联系,成立独立的英格兰教会。他逐渐地与罗马脱离了1529年和1534年之间。他解散了所有英国的修道院和修女院,因为后者对教皇比对更忠诚英国国王。法律如继承法案》和1534年的《至尊法案》使改革具有了可行性。他建立了英格兰的教会为国家教会的国家,他使自己最高英国教堂的领袖。
亨利八世的改革强调了君主的权利和自然加强了亨利的地位;议会从来没有干过这样漫长而重要的工作之前,其重要性成长为一个结果。他对教皇权力袭击的鼓励许多评论家滥用的天主教堂的。英国正在远离天主教向基督教。
III. Elizabeth I (1558-1603)
III、伊丽莎白一世(1558 - 1603)
Elizabeth's religious reform and her foreign policy
Elizabeth's religious reform was a compromise of views. She broke Mary's ties with Rome and restored her father's independent Church of England, i.e. keeping to Catholic doctrines and practices but to be free of the Papal control. He religious settlement was unacceptable to both the extreme Protestants known as Puritans and to ardent Catholics.
For nearly 30 years Elizabeth successfully played off against each other the two great Catholic powers, France and Spain, and prevented England from getting involved in any major European conflict. Through her marriage alliances which were never materialized, Elizabeth managed to maintain a friendly relationship with France. So
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England was able to face the danger from Spain.
伊丽莎白的宗教改革和对外政策
伊丽莎白的宗教改革是各种观点的妥协。她中断玛丽与罗马的关系,恢复父王独立的英格兰教会,也就是说保持天主教教条及习俗,但不受教皇控制。她的宗教和解既不被极端的新教徒都无法被称为清教徒和虔诚的天主教徒所接受。
将近30年来,伊丽莎白成功地扮演了相互对抗的两大天主教强国法国和西班牙,和预防英格兰卷入任何主要的欧洲冲突。通过她从未结婚联盟是,伊莉莎白设法与法国维持友好关系。所以英格兰面对危险能够从西班牙来的。
IV. The English Renaissance
Distinctive features of the English Renaissance
1) English culture was revitalized not so much directly by the classics as by contemporary Europeans under the influence of the classics;
2) England as an insular country followed a course of social and political history which was to a great extent independent of the course of history elsewhere in Europe;
3) Owing to the great genius of the 14th century poet Chaucer, the native literature was sufficiently vigorous and experienced in assimilating for foreign influences without being subjected by them;
4) English Renaissance coincided with the Reformation in England.
英国文艺复兴时期
英国文艺复兴时期的特点
1)英语文化与其说是重新直接由经典作为现代欧洲人的影响下经典作品;
2)英格兰是一个狭隘的国家的社会和政治历史课程,很大程度上独立于历史的进程在欧洲其它地方;
(3)由于14th世纪伟大的天才的诗人乔叟,本土的文学充分的剧烈的经验,吸收外国的影响,被受到他们;
4)英国文艺复兴和英格兰的宗教改革在相一致。
VI. The Civil Wars and their consequences
Because of the absolute rule of Charles, the confrontation between Charles I and the parliament developed into the civil war. The war began on August 22,1642 and ended in 1651. Charles I was condemned to death.
The English Civil War is also called the Puritan Revolution. It has been seen as a conflict between the parliament and the King, and a conflict between economic interests of the Crown. The economic interests of the urban middle classed coincided with their religious (Puritan) ideology while the Crown's traditional economic interests correspondingly allied with Anglican religious belief. The English Civil War not only overthrew feudal system in England but also shook the foundation of the feudal rule in Europe. It is generally regarded as the beginning of modern world history.
The Restoration
When Oliver Cromwell died in 1658 and was succeeded by his son, Richard, the regime began to collapse. One of Cromwell's generals George Monck, occupied London and arranged for new parliamentary elections. The Parliament thus was elected in 1660 resolved the crisis by asking the late King's son to return from his exile in France as King Charles II. It was called the Restoration.
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The Glorious Revolution of 1688光荣革命
In 1685 Charles II died and was succeeded by his brother James II. James was brought up in exile in Europe, was a Catholic. He hoped to rule without giving up his personal religious vies. But England was no more tolerant of a Catholic king in 1688 than 40 years ago. So the English politicians rejected James II, and appealed to a Protestant king, William of Orange, to invade and take the English throne. William landed in England in 1688. The takeover was relatively smooth, with no bloodshed, nor any execution of the king. This was known as the Glorious Revolution.
The Gunpowder Plot of 1605
1605年
The Gunpowder Plot of 1605 was the most famous of the Catholic conspiracies. On Nov. 5, 1605, a few fanatical Catholics attempted to blow King James and his ministers up in the House of Parliament where Guy Fawkes had planted barrels of gun-powder in the cellars. The immediate result was the execution of Fawkes and his fellow-conspirators and imposition of severe anti-Catholic laws. The long-term result has been an annual celebration on Nov. 5, when a bonfire is lit to turn a guy and a firework display is arranged.
南北战争的后果
由于绝对统治权的查尔斯河,对立查理一世和议会发展成了内战。战争开始于1642年8月22日,结束于1651年。查理一世被判死刑。
英国内战又称为清教徒革命。它被视为之间发生冲突的议会和王、经济利益之间的冲突的下一位国王。经济利益相一致的城市中产归类与他们的宗教(清教)思想吻合,,皇室传统的经济利益相应地盟军与圣公会教的宗教信仰相结合。英国内战不仅推翻了英国的封建制度,而且动摇震动封建统治的基础欧洲。英国内战通常被看作是现代世界史的开端。
恢复
1658年奥利弗克伦威尔去世,他的儿子理查德继任护国公,政权立即开始瓦解。克伦威尔的一位将军乔治蒙克占领伦敦,安排新的议会选举。国会在1660年当选,从而解决了危机要求上一任国王的儿子长期流亡地法国回国作国王查尔斯二世。这就是所谓的王政复辟。
1688年的光荣革命
在1685年去世了查尔斯二世,被他哥哥詹姆斯二世。詹姆斯是在欧洲流亡长大,是个天主教徒。他希望在不放弃他的个人规则宗教理论。但是英格兰没有更多的宽容天主教国王于1688比40年前。所以英国政治家拒绝詹姆斯二世,并呼吁新教的国王,威廉的橘子,入侵和采取的英国王位。威廉降落在英国于1688年。收购相对光滑,没有流血,或任何执行国王。这被称为光荣的革命。
1605年的火药阴谋案
1605年
1605年的火药阴谋案是最著名的天主教阴谋。在11月5日,几个狂热的天主教徒企图炸死国王詹姆斯和他的部长们在国会大厦在盖伊。福克斯栽桶在地窖放了炸药桶。直接的结果是执行。福克斯和他fellow-conspirators严重的反天主教法律和奴役。长期结果是每年11月庆祝活动将于5日点燃营火关了他的模拟像并燃放烟火安排好了。
第五章The Rise and Fall of the British Empire (1688-1990)
英帝国的升起和衰落
给非英专业的同学看看 已经被做了中文解释
I. Whigs and Tories辉格党和保守党
These two party names originated with the Glorious Revolution (1688).
The Whigs were those who opposed absolute monarchy and supported the right to religious freedom for Nonconformists. The Whigs were to form a coalition with dissident Tories in the mid-19th century and become the Liberal Party.
The Tories were those who supported hereditary monarchy and were reluctant to remove kings. The Tories were the forerunners of the Conservative Party.
I、辉格党和保守党
这两个政党名称皆起源于1688年的光荣革命。
因而有了“是指那些反对绝对王权的支持和宗教信仰自由权利的异教徒。因而有了“要组建一个联盟与持不同政见的保守党在mid-19th世纪,成为了自由党。
保守党是指那些支持世袭君主制和君王的人不愿意删除。保守党在保守党的旗帜。 I. Agricultural Changes in the Late 18th Century
During the late 18th and early 19th centuries, the "open-field" system ended when the Enclosure Act was passed. The movement lasted for centuries. Agricultural enclosure had good as well as bad results:
（1） Farms became bigger and bigger units as the great bought up the small;
（2） More vegetables, more milk and more dairy produce were consumed, and diet became more varied;
（3） Enclosure was a disaster for the tenants evicted from their lands by the enclosures. These peasant farmers were forced to look for work in towns. Enclosure led to mass emigration, particularly to the New World;
（4） A new class hostility was introduced into rural relationships.
农业的变化18th世纪后期
在晚18th和早期19th世纪,“《”系统外壳行为结束时通过了。运动持续了好几个世纪了。农业外壳有很好的也有坏的结果:
(1)变得越来越大的农场单位作为大买小;
(2)增加了蔬菜、更多的奶和食用更多的乳制品、饮食变得更多样化;
(3)外壳是一个灾难被从他们的土地上租户的围栏里。这些农民被迫找工作在城镇。外壳导致大规模移民,特别是对新的世界;
(4)中产生了新的阶级对立农村的关系。
II. The Industrial Revolution (1780-1830)工业革命
1．The industrial Revolution refers to the mechanization of industry and the consequent changes in social and economic organization in Britain in the late 18th and early 19th centuries.
2．Britain was the first country to industrialize because of the following factors:
(1) Favorable geographical location. Britain was well placed geographically to participate in European and world trade;
(2) Political stability. Britain had a peaceful society, which, after the 17th century, was increasingly interested in overseas trade and colonies. International trade brought wealth to merchants and city bankers. They and those who had done well out of new farming methods provided capital in large quantities for industrialization.
(3) Good foundation in economy. The limited monarchy which resulted from the Glorious
给非英专业的同学看看 已经被做了中文解释
Revolution of 1688 ensured that the powerful economic interests in the community could exert their influence over Government policy.
(4) It was a country in which the main towns were never too far from seaports, or from rivers, which could distribute their products.
(5) Britain had many rivers, which were useful for transport but also for water and steam power. Britain also had useful mineral resources.
(6) British engineers had sound training as craftsmen.
(7) The inventors were respected. They solved practical problems.
(8) Probably laissez faire and "Protestant work ethic" helped.
(9) England, Scotland, and Wales formed a customs union after 1707 and this included Ireland after 1807. So the national market was not hindered by internal customs barriers.
(10) The enclosures and other improvements in agriculture made their contributions by providing food for the rising population, labor for the factories, and some of the raw materials needed by industry.
II、工业革命(1780 - 1830)
工业革命指的是1.工业的机械化,以及由此而导致的社会结构和经济结构的变化18th英国后期和早期19th世纪。
英国是第一个2.工业化国家,因为它有下列因素:
(1)良好的地理位置。英国是放置在地理上参加欧洲和世界贸易;
(2)政治稳定。英国有一个和平的社会,在17th世纪,是越来越有兴趣的海外贸易和殖民地。国际贸易带来了财富和城市商人银行家。他们和那些已做得很好,新耕作方式提供资金大量的工业化进程。
(3)在经济良好的基础。君主权利的限制,使得1688年的光荣革命使得强大的经济利益集团能对议会政策施加影响。
(4)这是一个国家的主要城镇皆靠近海港或河流,可以发布他们的产品。
(5)英国许多河流不仅用于交通,还提供水力及蒸汽动力。英国还有可用的矿产资源。
(6)英国工程师为训练有素的手工艺人。
(7)发明家受人尊重。他们解决了实际问题。
(8)可能放任和“新教工作道德”有帮助。
(九)英格兰、苏格兰和威尔士形成关税联盟,1707年后,1807年后爱尔兰加入。因此,全国市场不再受阴于内部的关税障碍。
(10)圈地运动和其它农业改良做出了一定的贡献提供食物对于人口增加、劳动的工厂,提供了所需的一些原材料行业。
3．Typical examples of the inventions during the Industrial Revolution
(1) John Kay's flying shuttle in 1733;
(2) James Hargreaves' Spinning Jenny in 1766;
(3) Richard Arkwright's water-power machine in 1769;
(4) Samuel Crompton's mule in 1779
(5) Edmund Cartwright's power loom in 1784;
(6) James Watt's steam engine in 1765.
4．Consequences of the industrial Revolution
（1） Britain was by 1830 the "workshop of the world";
（2） Towns grew rapidly and became the source of the nation's wealth.
给非英专业的同学看看 已经被做了中文解释
（3） Mechanization destroyed the livelihood of those who could not invest in it . The working men worked and lived in a appalling conditions.
（4） The industrial revolution created the industrial working class, the proletariat, and it later led to trade unionism.
4、工业革命的的后果
(1)英国到1830年止成为“世界工场”;
(2)城镇迅速兴起,成为国家财富的源泉。
(3)机械化摧毁了人们的生活不可能投资。工人们的工作和生活在极其恶劣的条件下。
(4)工业工业革命产生了工人阶级,即无产阶级,后来形成了工会制度。
III. The Chartist Movement (1836-1848)
III、宪章运动(1836 - 1848)
1. Reasons for parliamentary reforms.
(1) Power was monopolized by the aristocrats.
(2) Representation of town and country, and North and South was unfair.
(3) There were also various so-called rotten or pocket boroughs.
2．Three Reform Bills
Between 1832 and 1884 three Reform Bills were passed.
a) The Reform Act of 1832 (also called the "Greater Charter of 1832) abolished "rotten boroughs", and redistributed parliamentary seats more fairly among the growing tows. It also gave the vote to many householders and tenant's, based on the value of their property.
b) The New Poor Law of 1834 forced the poor people into work houses instead of giving them sufficient money to survive in their own homes.
1。议会改革的原因。
(1)权力被贵族垄断。
(2)议会中城镇和农村,北方和南方的代表分配极不公平。
(3)也有各种各样的所谓的烂或口袋个行政区。
三个改革法案2.
在1832年和1884年之间通过了三个改革法案。
一)1832年的《改革法案》(也叫“大宪章1832)废除“烂市镇”,并且再分配更为公平的议会席位在日益增长的牵引。这也给予了许多户主们投票与租客,基于的房产价值。
二)新贫困法律迫使穷人1834年投入到工作中,而不是给他们房屋足够的钱来生存在他们自己的住宅。
3．A People's Charter
There was widespread dissatisfaction with the Reform Act of 1832 and the New Poor Law. In 1836, a group of skilled workers and small shopkeepers formed the London Working Men's Association. They drew up a charter of political demands (a People's Charter) in 1838, with the intention of presenting it to Parliament. It had six points:
(1)the vote for all adult males; (2)voting by secret ballot; (3)equal electoral districts; (4)abolition of property qualifications for members of Parliament;
(5)payment of members of Parliament; (6)annual Parliaments, with a General Election every June.
3、人民宪章
有普遍不满1832年的《改革法案》和《新贫困的律法。1836年,一群技术工人和小店主组成
